Can the Last Grip of Frost Be Chipped Away? Albanian Theatre in the Communist Aftermath

Anxhela ÇIKOPANO HOXHA
Albert ÇELOALIAJ

 

 

Abstract: At the beginning of professional theatre in Albania, there were no trained professionals, so directors and writers were sent to study in the Eastern Bloc, particularly the Soviet Union. Those who studied in Moscow reported being exposed to various theatrical traditions, from Brechtian theatre to ethnic African performances. However, they were never permitted to apply this aesthetics in Albania, despite Brecht’s work being considered progressive and revolutionary – markedly different from Stanislavsky’s approach. In the 1970s, an effort was made to ban all foreign plays, leaving only the strict framework of socialist realism. With no alternative aesthetic movements, by the late 1980s, Albanian theatre had fallen into a deep crisis, as even official critics acknowledged.

With the fall of the Berlin Wall, Albanian theatre entered a new era. Theatre became entirely free to explore, and directors gravitated toward absurdist theatre, a genre that had been forbidden until 1990. Beckett, Ionesco, and later Sartre were among the most frequently staged playwrights. While directors embraced their works, audiences—accustomed to a more conventional approach—were less receptive. New elements such as dance and body expression entered the theatrical scene; at the Academy of Fine Arts, a previously unknown form emerged—a scriptless étude collage that built simple narratives; in 1997, Albania saw its first staged musical; and an experiment with anthropological theatre was also introduced, but it failed to resonate with audiences. All these stand in contrast to the large-scale productions traditionally claimed by the National Theatre.

However, as director Agim Qirjaqi observes, after experimenting with absurdist theatre and modern Albanian dramatisations, it is classical works—such as those of Shakespeare and Ibsen—that have been best received by directors, actors, critics, and audiences alike. Having been accustomed to socialist realist theatre for decades, the Albanian audience, even after the “socialist” aspect was removed, continued to favour classical realist drama. Over time, additional artistic elements have been incorporated, enriching performances with a distinctive theatrical essence.

 

Keywords: Theatre genres, Albanian theatre, alternative theatre, realism, Socialist Realism

 

The ice is giving way

It was in the mid-to-late 1930s that the first professionally trained theatre practitioner arrived in Albania. His name was Sokrat Mio, and he had studied music and declamation at the Paris Conservatory. From his arrival until the end of 1944—when the last Nazi troops left the country—he worked extensively as a theatre direc­tor within the para-professional Alba­nian theatre scene. The end of 1944 marked the rise of the communist re­gime, which sought to consolidate power by all means, including the introduction of a new theatrical mod­el—one deliberately detached from the Catholic schools, where theatrical activity had flourished. As for other para-professional troupes, they were neither stable entertainment ventures nor substantial enough to be consid­ered bourgeois theatre, particularly since Albania lacked the cultural in­frastructure found in countries where bourgeois art was actively opposed.

Agitprop theatre, introduced by communist groups and performed by amateurs for political purposes or within partisan units,¹ initially shaped the direction of Albanian theatrical art. For a very brief time, this direction followed Yugoslavian influence under Boža Nikolić, who had been contract­ed as director and organiser of the Albanian National Theatre². Sokrat Mio, the first official director of the State Theatre—later known as the Popular Theatre and then the National Theatre—was primarily influenced by the French education and style he had received. After 1945, he made efforts to align with leftist, anti-bourgeois themes. Despite Mio’s shift toward socialist themes, his own productions were apparently still considered un­suitable for the emerging aesthetic standards³. As a result, the Albanian state decided to invite Soviet directors and educators trained in the Stanislavsky system,⁴ beginning with Dudin Vladimir Fyodorovich⁵ and followed by several others. Sokrat Mio reportedly did not embrace the Stanislavsky method, viewing it as merely one among many acting ap­proaches. Nonetheless, the Stanislavsky school and its focus on realism have remained central to Al­banian theatre­cal education to this day⁶.

By the 1960s, there were efforts to introduce Brechtian writing and theat­rical style in Albania⁷. In some in­stances, these experiments fell short of achieving high artistic standards⁸. Nevertheless, any such innovation was abruptly curtailed following the infamous 4th Plenum, held from June 26 to 28, 1973, during which all ex­perimentation in art, literature, and theatre was officially suppressed⁹. From that moment on, socialist real­ism—with its pronounced agitprop features—established itself as the pre­vailing theatrical form, resulting in a total freeze of artistic innovation. This shift was particularly reinforced dur­ing the banning of foreign plays deemed “uneducational” for the younger generation, as part of the Ide­ological and Cultural Revolution in­spired by the Maoist model¹⁰. As a consequence, Albanian theatre experi­enced a severe shortage of quality dramatic works, leading to a genuine crisis by the late 1980s¹¹.

In 1989, the National Theatre staged Kush e solli Doruntinën? (Do­runtine), an adaptation of Ismail Kadare’s novel, itself based on an an­cient Albanian legend. The production incorporated choruses—an element used only once before in Albanian theatre, in the politically banned 1968 play Njollat e murrme (The Dark Spots)—as well as folkloric motifs blended with realistic acting, resulting in a performance with a notably som­bre tone. The play did not fully align with the conventions of critical real­ism or revolutionary romanticism¹². Most strikingly, it featured a clear parallel between the resurrection of Doruntine’s brother and that of Jesus Christ—a particularly sensitive com­parison in a country that, by the late 1960s, had been officially declared atheist¹³.

By early 1990, an artistic magazine had already begun to discuss alterna­tive forms of theatre, such as Living Theatre and Panic Theatre¹⁴. In this climate of cautious experimentation, Frikë dhe mjerim në Rajhun e Tretë (Fear and Misery of the Third Reich) by Bertolt Brecht was permitted—part of a broader attempt to reintroduce Brechtian and other innovative theat­rical expressions through a studio af­filiated with the National Theatre¹⁵. Up to that point, the only Brecht play allowed in Albania had been Arturo Ui (The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui), staged in 1971—but only after intense debate and scrutiny, narrowly surviv­ing the rigid standards imposed by the Ideological and Cultural Revolution¹⁶. Although Fear and Misery of the Third Reich is an explicitly anti-fascist cycle of short playlets, only two—Kryqi i bardhë (The Chalk Cross) and Spiuni (The Spy)—were staged. While overtly critical of fascism, these pieces could easily be read as veiled critiques of the communist regime in Albania, particularly in their portrayal of sur­veillance and arbitrary political perse­cution – features that defined Albanian life for decades. That was precisely the intention of the young director at the time, Arben Kumbaro. However, the play was quickly suppressed. No media outlet reported on it, and it was allowed to disappear in silence, with­out any public acknowledgment.

To counterbalance such bold alle­gory, the next production, Shkallët (The Stairs), became a widely dis­cussed theatrical event. For the first time in Albania, a play was staged in the format of a live discussion, resem­bling an open forum with the audi­ence. A social drama that explored the ethical dilemmas faced by those who ascend to power, the performance blurred the boundaries between thea­tre and the political meetings so com­mon in communist Albania—only now transformed into an artistic expe­rience¹⁷. Spectators were invited to sit on stage; actors performed without makeup; the mise-en-scène was min­imal; and the unsettling, especially composed music underscored the de­parture from traditional staging. These were all deliberate and bold directorial choices¹⁸. Ironically, the production echoed Brecht’s “alienation effect”, although the term itself was never explicitly invoked. Despite its critical acclaim, The Stairs also attracted insti­tutional criticism. Dritëro Agolli, then chairman of the League of Writers and Artists of Albania, argued that the protagonist lacked proper character development. According to Agolli, the central figure’s dilemmas remained superficial: his position was journalis­tically provocative but artistically un­derdeveloped. Agolli contrasted this portrayal with the “positive heroes” and “martyrs” emblematic of socialist realism—revealing the ideological rift between emerging directorial voices and the entrenched cultural leader­ship¹⁹. It is important to note that The Stairs was not an overt act of dissent against the system. Rather, it repre­sented an effort to introduce new di­rectorial methods within the ideologi­cal framework of socialism—still ori­entated toward confronting and re­solving social issues in a communist context²⁰.

What was perceived at the time as a direct blow to the system was Nata me hënë (Moonlit Night), a stage ad­aptation by director Edmond Budina of a novella by Ismail Kadare. At the heart of the play is a young woman who must prove to the Party secre­tary—and to all those who resent her for being different and standing out—that she has not committed a moral transgression, such as sleeping with an engaged man. Forced to demonstrate her virginity, she spirals into a deep personal and psychological crisis. This was portrayed on stage, for the first time in Albanian theatre, through bal­lerinas representing the different per­sonas within her and modern choreog­raphy. The play powerfully exposed the invasive control of a repressive state apparatus that extended its reach even into the most intimate aspects of individual life.

Premiering on October 14, 1990, Moonlit Night struck a nerve with au­diences who had already begun to rebel. Only months earlier, in July 1990, more than 5,000 Albanians had stormed foreign embassies in a des­perate attempt to flee the country. The performance of the vice-director char­acter in Moonlit Night was particularly provocative. Portrayed by actress Yllka Mujo, the character deliberately mim­icked, in a few lines, the distinctive rhetorical style of the late communist leader Enver Hoxha. Dressed in a dark green suit and shirt resembling a mili­tary uniform, the character drew an unmistakable parallel between her authoritarian posture and the broader repressive apparatus of the regime—one that was now being openly chal­lenged. Despite its significance, none of the major newspapers of the time reported on the performance. Only the local paper, Tirana, published an in­terview with the director. While the article carried a bold headline—When Powerful Thoughts Are Conveyed—the content remained cautious and refrained from openly confronting the system²¹. It wasn’t until 1991,²² after political pluralism had been officially declared, that other media outlets be­gan to write about the play. After the outbreak of student revolts in early December 1990, the decades-long socialist freeze slowly began to give way.

You can’t make spring bloom before its time

Anyone was now free to create the kind of theatre they had always envi­sioned. But what kind of theatre would that be? Which plays? Which school of thought or aesthetic ap­proach? Several directors had recently attended courses abroad—mostly in France—but their foundational train­ing remained unchanged: rooted in the Stanislavsky method and shaped by socialist realism. Letting go of those deep-seated influences was no simple task; the ideological ‘ice blocks’ could not be chipped away overnight.

A series of structural and political steps had to be taken first. Most ur­gently, a Ministry of Culture needed to be established. Since 1946, the arts had been managed by the Committee of Culture and Arts under the Ministry of Education. It was time for the arts to have a dedicated institution²³. At the same time, art had to begin to be treated as a “consumer good”—a no­tion previously unimaginable for Al­banian society and especially for art­ists accustomed solely to state sup­port. In response to the fear of a total collapse of cultural institutions, some proposed a new model: not simply artist and consumer, but a tripartite relationship—artist, state, and con­sumer²⁴.

Another issue was the shift from quantity to quality. Of the ten state theatres operating across Albania, on­ly the National Theatre in Tirana was deemed worth preserving in its exist­ing form. The others, seen as unsus­tainable and no longer financially via­ble,²⁵ were expected to learn to self-finance²⁶. In July 1991, then-Minister of Culture Preç Zogaj publicly advo­cated for the development of a net­work of private cultural institutions, including theatres²⁷. Yet even today, in 2025, Albania still lacks a healthy private cultural sector.

By 1991, the National Theatre found itself in a state of what was widely described at the time as “inex­plicable confusion.”²⁸. Many actors were missing—some had left the country—while key approvals from the Committee of Culture and Arts were no longer forthcoming. The only play still running was The Stairs, al­ready long in the repertoire. The same director staged Friedrich Dürrenmatt’s Vizita e damës plakë (The Visit) in late March 1991. The work’s only discern­ible rebellion against the repressive cultural past was its very genre—a social and psychological drama²⁹—and its casting of a once-outcast ac­tress, Edi Luarasi, whose husband had been detained in the 1970s for espous­ing directorial approaches seen as dangerously liberal.

Interestingly, neither the directors of The Visit or Valsi i Titanikut (Titanic Waltz) by Tudor Mușatescu (1990), nor the audience fully grasped the deeper allegorical warnings em­bedded in these plays. Messages about the cost of prosperity, the moral com­promises of justice, and the vulnera­bilities of democracy to corruption and decay remained largely undetect­ed. Even today, their significance re­mains underexplored.

What followed was a string of productions that lacked directorial or dramaturgical innovation. Among them were Dasmë gjaku (Blood Wed­ding, 1991) by Federico García Lorca, Besa (The Oath, 1992) by Sami Frashëri, and Zgjimi (Awakening, 1992) by Konstandino Marko. In 1992, a revival of Dhelpra dhe rrushtë (The Fox and the Grapes) by Teixeira de Figueiredo—first staged in 1961—tried to contemporise the production. The performance opened with the sound of Italian television channels being zapped through, included a re­frigerator on stage, a soda can, mod­ern clothing for the maid, who at some point bordered on striptease—unprecedented on the Albanian stage, and soundtracks by the Scorpions and the lately released AC/DC’s Thunder­struck. The goal was to embed popu­lar consumer culture and music into the staging. Yet, audiences preferred the 1961 version. The powerful calls that had once imbued the final mono­logue with emotional gravity empha­sising freedom —so strong that it led to the production being banned from further staging—had now been re­duced to a theatrical gimmick, even though paired with Wind of Change, a song then emblematic of hope and transformation.

In March 1992, the theatrical com­pany Iliria—mentioned only once in historical records—was launched un­der the direction of Leka Bungo. The company’s sole production was Lugati (The Ghoul), a play written and directed by Bungo himself. The pro­duction was completed in just sixteen days, with two actors stepping into their roles only in the final four days, as others dropped out. The production was declared by the author as the first explicitly anticommunist play in post-socialist Albania³⁰.

The year 1992 closed with a new production of Shakespeare’s Rikardi III (Richard III), directed by Agim Qirjaqi. The same director had, in 1991, published a provocative mani­festo titled Teatri Kombëtar – Teatri “Evropa” (The National Theatre – Theatre “Europe”), subtitled: “Rather than a manifesto, this project is an endless dream to enter into the theatre of Europe”³¹. In this text, Qirjaqi praised avant-garde figures such as Adolphe Appia, Antonin Artaud, and even Daniel Craig for their efforts in dismantling traditionalism. He argued that modern Albanian theatre should not merely break from the ideological and aesthetic dogmas of socialist real­ism but embrace a wide range of phil­osophical and artistic trends—from absurd to existentialist drama. His vision was a theatre with a European heart, one that stood against oppres­sion, falsehood, and the inhuman. A theatre for the audience, not for pow­er. And yet, even in this vision of ar­tistic liberation, the call for state sup­port remained. Theatres, directors, and actors alike faced immense challenges in this transitional period-economic hardship, political instability, and the absence of a private cultural infra­structure. While the ideological barri­ers had been torn down, the path to­ward a sustainable and pluralistic the­atrical landscape remained uncertain³².

It is true that all theatrical schools and movements that emerged globally after the Second World War were ef­fectively banned in Albania. Howev­er, the rush to recover lost time in the early 1990s sometimes led to mis­steps. Theatre scholar and critic Kudret Velça was particularly clear on this point: although Albanian theatre had come late to the absurdist tradi­tion, he encouraged a pluralistic ap­proach. According to Velça, Albanian theatre needed to quickly move through the stages it had missed while never abandoning the national dra­matic tradition. He therefore praised the well-executed production of Në pritje të Godosë (Waiting for Godot) by Beckett, staged in 1993 by Arben Kumbaro with the Experimental Theatre of the Academy of Fine Arts³³.

Indeed, many directors turned with enthusiasm to absurdist theatre during this period, as seen in productions such as Kush vjedh një këmbë ka fat në dashuri (Who Steals a Foot Is Lucky in Love, 1992) by Dario Fo, Fando dhe Lis (Fando and Lis, 1993) by Fernando Arrabal, Leksioni (The Lesson, 1993, performed by students of the Academy of Fine Arts) by Eugène Ionesco, Këngëtarja tullace (The Bald Soprano, 1994) by Ionesco, Lavirja e denjë për respekt (The Re­spectful Prostitute, 1994, Theatre of Gjirokastra) by Jean-Paul Sartre, and Me dyer të mbyllura (No Exit, 1994, Migjeni Theatre of Shkodra) by Sartre. Yet the road to a European-style theatre was not smooth.

As Vladimir Avrami notes, Alba­nian art endured decades of isolation from global cultural developments, and artists had been trained to create ideologically driven work³⁴. The sud­den pivot toward the grotesque and the absurd often remained confined to artistic circles, leaving audiences—accustomed to realist theatre and co­herent, meaningful dialogue—largely unprepared and unreceptive to such experimentation. Attendance dwin­dled after initial curiosity wore off, as many spectators rejected performanc­es in which words seemed to lose their meaning³⁵. For this reason, plays that leaned toward a more classical or conventional form found greater reso­nance with the public. Notable exam­ples include Tetë persona plus (Eight People +, 1994) by Ferdinand Radi—a light contemporary-themed comedy —and Fernand Krafi më ka çuar këtë letër (Fernando Krapp Wrote Me This Letter, 1994) by Tankred Dorst, both of which achieved considerable popu­larity.

As Albanians embraced long-forbidden forms of entertainment,³⁶ theatre began to lose its appeal. The stage felt increasingly detached from the public, offering performances shaped by the absurdities artists them­selves faced³⁷—absurdities not yet shared by a society freshly stepping into freedom. The audience did not relate to existential dilemmas or post-war traumas portrayed on stage.

In fact, freedom in the theatre space became more precarious. In 1991–1992, several violent incidents were reported in theatres: intoxicated individuals would enter the audience, climb onto the stage mid-perfor-mance, shout over the actors,³⁸ assault staff who intervened,³⁹ and even fire pistols⁴⁰—turning spaces of art into zones of chaos.

Meanwhile, in August 1991, National Theatre actors went on strike, de­manding fair compensation from Kinostudio— the state film stu­dio employing actors from the National Theatre and other theatres—which failed to establish a hierarchy of pay­ment based on role or contribu­tion, especially now that films were ex­pected to generate income⁴¹. Beyond poor pay, artists faced the painful loss of moral recognition and audience respect and growing institu­tional in­stability. The National Thea­tre was plagued by legal and adminis­trative issues and declining audienc­es⁴².

At the same time, at the Academy of Fine Arts, a new generation of stu­dents in 1992 demanded curricular reform and greater accountability from professors,⁴³ marking the start of what could become a more stable and open-minded artistic institution in the future.

***

It is curious how in 1993 the gen­eral manager of the National Theatre, Neritan Alibali, positioned Albanian theatre alongside its European and Western counterparts, stating that “the Albanian theatre is in a state of shock; it has descended into a free arena, still unarmed. Maybe this is the logic of the time. Some foreign critics claim that theatre in Eastern Europe is dy­ing, while in the West it faces huge difficulties. What will happen? I think that in Albania theatre might not die and will not die.”⁴⁴ He then called for radical reforms to create an art market supported by private funds, media accreditation, and advertising⁴⁵.

And then in 1994, he claimed that the National Theatre had passed the point of mere survival, despite an on­going campaign against it, fuelled by articles criticising the lack of Albanian plays⁴⁶—an issue that sparked a pro­longed public debate⁴⁷. The shortage of Albanian dramaturgy⁴⁸ remains a persistent issue, with Stefan Çapaliku standing out as the only notable play­wright since 1995. As Arben Kallamata aptly remarked, “They say that Albanian drama is suffering a crisis. I do not know any period when it hasn’t”⁴⁹.

While Albanian plays continued to feature in theatre repertoires after communism,⁵⁰ many directors fa­voured foreign works⁵¹ due to many problems with the domestic drama. The 1994 Festival of Albanian National Theatre demonstrated that the sheer quantity of Albanian dramas, many of low quality, was not an achievement in itself⁵². The problems largely stem from the absence of for­mal education in playwriting and screenwriting in Albania. The older generation of playwrights remained entrenched in schematic forms inher­ited from socialist realism, often at­tempting to present universal themes through forced allegory rather than grounded artistic realities—resulting in works that resembled propaganda more than theatre.

Another ongoing challenge is the lack of critical engagement. During state socialism, criticism was shaped by professional and ideological con­straints, producing largely affirmative and politically correct commentary that lacked substantive argumentation and broad cultural knowledge⁵³. In­stead of rigorously challenging art, criticism tended to reinforce the lega­cy of auto-censorship⁵⁴. Reflecting on the 1990s in Albania, we like to de­scribe this period as the “Quo Vadis?”, “O tempora, o mores!”, and “Ars longa, vita brevis” era—Latin phrases widely used by artists and intellectuals of the time to express their frustration.

It’s a turbulent ride, but theatre persists

As problems in the deteriorating National Theatre mounted—among them power outages,⁵⁵ the decay of already outdated technical equip­ment,⁵⁶ a crisis of directors, low in­come, fear of commercialisation,⁵⁷ a lack of clear and renewed organisa­tional structures, aesthetic confusion, and disorientation in modes of expres­sion⁵⁸—there was also little time to prepare premieres due to their small number⁵⁹ and minimal funding⁶⁰. Combined with a broader social, polit­ical, and moral crisis,⁶¹ the situation appeared increasingly bleak.

In contrast, the Academy of Fine Arts grew bolder and more provoca­tive, staging performances such as Viktimat e detyrës (Victims of Duty) by Eugène Ionesco, directed by Arben Kumbaro, which introduced nudity and a rape scene on stage for the first time in Albania. The production drew harsh criticism, was interrupted,⁶² and the actors protested by performing the play outdoors, in front of the Academy itself. Critics hailed this as the moment when Albanian theatre entered “real Western theatre,”⁶³ yet this radical boldness was part of a deeper phenomenon emerging within the Academy.

Since 1965,⁶⁴ when the university program for directors was launched, it had produced around seven directors per year, who were typically appoint­ed to local or national theatres, houses of culture, or other cultural institu­tions. But the post-communist transi­tion and economic restructuring—coupled with shrinking budgets of the National Theatre,⁶⁵ the closure of re­gional theatres, and the collapse of cultural infrastructure—left entire generations of stage artists with no guaranteed employment and no mechanisms to ensure they could sur­vive through theatre in the new market economy. Gëzime Kame, director, artistic director of the National Theatre, and professor of the Academy of Arts, proposed hybrid models of public-private theatre ventures, suggesting that companies move away from full-time troupes to project-based con­tracts,⁶⁶ thereby creating opportunities for emerging artists.

Such a venture would be Armando Bora’s, who founded the theatre troupe Bardhë e Zi (Black and White), composed of students from the Academy of Arts. Bora explored an­thropological and polyphonic theatre. Although inspired by the theatre an­thropology of Eugenio Barba—often misunderstood and misused in the Albanian context—Bora retained the spoken word in his productions, argu­ing that his realist theatre training made him reluctant to deprive the ac­tor of language⁶⁷. While some profes­sors led students toward alternative forms such as plastic theatre and pan­tomime,⁶⁸ others remained committed to the realist method, insisting that only by mastering realism could ac­tors safely experiment with other styles. Without this foundation, they argued, performers risked being artis­tically unprepared for the future⁶⁹.

Caught between the need to gain popularity with the audience—since a stable institutional theatre career was no longer guaranteed—and the urge to discard the old theatre, namely social­ist realism or realism in general, in favour of alternative forms,⁷⁰ the Academy of Fine Arts became a true hub of experimentation. Eager and insatiable for knowledge of world theatre and its methods,⁷¹ it embraced this transitional moment with bold­ness. So open were the debates within its walls that when the annual Festival of Albanian National Theatre 1995 was suddenly relocated from Tirana to the coastal city of Vlora, many at the Academy claimed it was a deliberate move to exclude students, who were seen as the most non-conformist and critical part of the audience. They la­mented that Tirana’s public, which might have recognised and supported emerging talents, would now miss out⁷².

The generational clash grew sharper. There were fewer venues, audiences, and financial resources to go around⁷³. One telling example was Gënjeshtari (The Liar) by Carlo Goldoni, staged at the Experimental Studio of the National Theatre. It in­troduced commedia dell’arte to Alba­nian audiences but was given only four days of on-stage rehearsal and limited support. Young actors, per­ceived with suspicion by the older generation, were generally offered little encouragement⁷⁴.

Knives were already sharpened⁷⁵ as the Academy of Arts entered the Theatre Festival as a contender for the very first time with Victims of Duty. Ten invitations were sent to the stu­dents of the Academy, yet their pres­ence was seen as controversial⁷⁶. The generational divide deepened: the old­er generation insisted on what they called ‘realist vs. modernist theatre,’⁷⁷ while the younger ones framed their work as ‘a challenge to real naturalism and tradi­tionalism⁷⁸. Although the Experimental Studio narrowly missed official compe­tition status, it still par­ticipated as a guest production, along­side Në katin e dytë është parajsa (Heaven Is on the Second Floor) by Ilir Bezhani, pre­sented by Kafe-Teatër 1⁷⁹. But what exactly was Kafe-Teatër 1?

Earlier this year, in May 1995⁸⁰, the first private theatre in Albania, Kafe-Teatër 1, came into existence. Former actor Petraq Xhillari, having earned good money between 1990 and 1995, decided to invest in his passion by building a theatre with a 60-person capacity, featuring a 4×4 m stage suit­able for six actors,⁸¹ and an attached bar and restaurant to cover expenses. His plan was to give all the earnings to the troupes, especially those open to experimentation,⁸² while he would “oversee the artistic quality.”⁸³ How­ever, just one month after the opening, Xhillari reported having many incom­ing projects but also complained about poor technical conditions that he could not support financially through his own businesses, hoping for a subsidy from the Ministry of Culture⁸⁴. It opened with Shoku Zylo (Comrade Zylo), a dramatisation from the novel The Rise and Fall of Comrade Zylo by Dritëro Agolli, staged by Alfred Bualoti and Andon Qesari⁸⁵.

In July 1995 students of the Academy of Arts performed Histori kafshësh (The Zoo Story) by Edward Albee on this stage⁸⁶. But it was the production, which took part in the festival, that sparked issues for Kafe-Teatër 1. Ilir Bezhani, playwright and director of Heaven Is on the Second Floor decided to stage it at the Na­tional Theatre, Xhillari accused the National Theatre of “stealing” the production, while Bezhani accused Xhillari of fraud—claiming that alt­hough Xhillari took sponsorships from the Ministry of Culture for the performance, he neither paid Bezhani as author or director nor had a legal contract with him⁸⁷.

By 1999, Kafe-Teatër 1 is men­tioned as having staged Epopeja e supës (The Epic of the Soup) by Vangjel Kozma, directed by Naun Shundi, and was reportedly preparing a production for the year 2000, ⁸⁸ but no further information is available from this point on.

 

***

From 1996, the Academy of Fine Arts mostly returned to realist theatre for their semester performances, growing fed up with absurd theatre⁸⁹ and also pressured by the rector, who insisted that artists should not be in­structed in only one direction⁹⁰.

As the proposal to have an alterna­tive theatre festival raised doubts about whether there were enough pro­ductions to justify such a contest,⁹¹ the National Theatre welcomed back for­mer theatre figures purged during state socialism, such as playwright Kasem Trebeshina with Tiranozauri (Tyrannosaurus), staged by Gëzim Kame, and director Mihallaq Luarasi⁹² with Hekurat (The Bars) by Árpád Göncz. However, these productions were disappointing⁹³. Luarasi himself claimed, “I felt like I was right back where I had left things 23 years ago,”⁹⁴ referring to the time when he was jailed for his avant-garde direct­ing — only now that style was no longer avant-garde but rather old-fashioned.

Kumbaro continued stirring con­troversy by proposing to stage Ballkoni (The Balcony) by Jean Genet at the National Theatre, which was declined. Instead, he opted for a light­er Genet play, Shërbëtoret (The Maids), staged for only two nights at the National Theatre of Opera and Ballet. The troupe, which the director called Theatre… without theatre, was financed by the French Embassy and the newspaper Koha Jonë,⁹⁵ but many claimed that the performance was not suitable for the Albanian audience⁹⁶.

The Experimental Studio of the National Theatre —a platform that challenged the system as theatre should in 1989, which stopped in 1990 and restarted in 1994— should have given young directors the chance to work with seasoned National Theatre professionals. Over these years, professors from the Academy of Fine Arts, new directors, and recent graduates became involved. However, by 1996 it had completely shifted, used by Gëzim Kame and young ac­tors to stage Lojëra në oborrin e pasmë (Games in the Backyard) by Edna Mazia⁹⁷.

However, the theatre manager Sulejman Dibra saw this studio as a tool for the younger generation to ex­ert pressure through art on the older generation and for the first to make space in the National Theatre⁹⁸. The idea was quite unrealistic, considering the limited job opportunities and the fact that the Experimental Studio lacked a formal administrative struc­ture, operating on a very low budget and relying mostly on volunteer art­ists⁹⁹. Even working in the National Theatre was no bed of roses, as artists often faced institutional constraints, limited resources, inconsistent politi­cal support and human resources¹⁰⁰. Yet, during this time, actors’ wages did double, partly because the National Theatre rented some spaces for a Bingo, generating additional in­come.

This was the peak of 1996, a year when Ponzi schemes flooded Albania’s market with money. Some Ponzi scheme investors even financed theatre productions¹⁰¹— until it all collapsed in 1997, plunging Albania into civil war.

Quo Vadis? opened the 1997 sea­son, written and directed by Serafin Fanku. However, after the first per­formance, the actors refused to con­tinue playing because, for three months, they had not received the 90% share of ticket sales required by law¹⁰². All promises of reforms at the National Theatre—including contract­ed actors¹⁰³ and a 76% increase in the culture budget by 1997 compared to 1993¹⁰⁴—vanished into thin air as eve­ryone struggled to survive.

During the state curfew, Gëzim Kame collaborated with Mirush Kabashi to stage the monodrama Apologjia e vërtetë e Sokratit (The True Apology of Socrates) by Kostis Varnalis, which became a signature role for Kabashi for years to¹⁰⁵. Alt­hough remarkable, this production controversially took the invitation to the experimental theatre contest in Egypt,¹⁰⁶ which was originally intend­ed for young actors from the Academy of Arts. The Academy stu­dents had prepared The Fantastics, the first Albanian musical show per­formed in English under an American director,¹⁰⁷ but couldn’t compete that year.

Other plays included the Experi­mental Studio’s Don Zhuani (Don Juan) by Molière, staged by Artan Imami, whose run was cut short by the civil unrest, and Mashtrimi (Fraud) by Ilir Bezhani, addressing the Ponzi schemes,¹⁰⁸ was difficult to craft and absorb effectively, having been released too close to the turmoil when both the author and the public were still too affected to engage with it reflectively. Despite the difficult circumstances, it was still possible to hold a National Drama Festival,¹⁰⁹ rather than the usual Festival of the Albanian National Theatre, which—despite grand promises of financing by Ponzi-scheme backers alongside an alternative theatre—could not take place in 1996. During the festival, even among theatre makers, the social tensions were reflected in roundtable discussions, which often became harsh and heated debates¹¹⁰.

Can the new much-awaited spring be sweeter than the last?

In 1998, promises emerged for a new theatre building¹¹¹ funded by do­nors, sponsors, and contributions from the capital’s citizens¹¹². However, with Edi Rama’s appointment as Minister of Culture, serious concerns began to cast a shadow over the National Theatre. Rama, who once called it “The Last Bastion of Socialist Realism,”¹¹³ soon became a source of tension among theatre artists. His on­going conflicts with the theatre com­munity—first as Minister of Culture, later as Mayor of Tirana, and eventu­ally as Prime Minister—sparked pro­longed debates and protests.

The year 1999 began with strict re­strictions imposed by the ministry: the theatre was allowed to operate only three days a week, with a maximum audience of 400 per show, and any sign of trouble could lead to immedi­ate closure¹¹⁴. From that moment on, Rama declared the building danger­ous, despite it having withstood even the 6.4-magnitude earthquake of 26 November 2019 without any damage. Nevertheless, on the last day of the COVID curfew, 17 May 2020, Rama ordered the demolition of the National Theatre amid fierce protests and a violent show of state force.

Amid these challenges, Kopshti me dallëndyshe (The Garden of Swallows) by Babis Cikuropulos, di­rected by Kiço Londo,¹¹⁵ marked the start of a very long series of less re­fined comedies—still favoured by the director. Meanwhile, Harvin Çuli’s planned staging of Zonjusha Zhuli (Miss Julie) by August Strindberg through the Experimental Studio turned into a private venture¹¹⁶.

Regarding other private initiatives, writer Selman Vaqarri revealed in an interview that he had acquired a li­cence for a room theatre where he intended to stage and film some of his plays,¹¹⁷ though no productions came to fruition there.

Regarding the National Theatre, it is revealing how opportunities were perceived, considering that Andeta Radi and Bojken Lako—both children of artists affiliated with the National Theatre—were given chances to direct Revizori (The Government Inspector, 1998) by Nikolaj Gogol and Ditë vere (Summer Day, 1998) by Sławomir Mrożek,¹¹⁸ while similar chances were not extended to other young directors from the Academy of Fine Arts or the Experimental Studio.

The limitations imposed on the National Theatre, along with a pro­posed new theatre law supported by Xhevdet Ferri—as well as by director Altin Basha and actor-turned-journalist Alban Dudushi¹¹⁹—introduced a radi­cal reform aimed at transitioning from a centralised National Theatre to a system of theat­rical companies. These companies were envisioned as the foundation for the future face of the National Theatre. This reform led to the resig­nation of director Gëzim Kame, re­nowned actor Roland Trebicka, emerging director Hervin Çuli, and sparked strong reactions from the National Association of Theatre Artists and the Union of Theatres of Albania¹²⁰.

In 1999, the stage of the Academy of Fine Arts became a focal point for performances by young generations of actors, directors, and their professors. But the venue also attracted the inter­est of other directors, such as Kiço Londo with his ill-received come­dies,¹²¹ and Gëzim Kame, who staged Darka e të marrëve (The Dinner Game) by Francis Veber. Kame chal­lenged Minister Rama and the artistic board of the National Theatre, which had not approved the production, by forming his own theatre company, Publimedia, alongside producers Agim Xhafka and Dritan Kaba. The company also hired renowned actor Robert Ndrenika. In retrospect, Kame’s resignation and transition to Publimedia appear to have been a de­liberate element of the broader strate­gy to fulfil the minister’s reform agenda¹²².

Similarly, Altin Basha, together with Gazmend Gjoka and Rezart Aga, created the company Oaz, primarily composed of students and young ac­tors from the Academy of Fine Arts. Oaz brought a fresh approach to the stage with non-scripted and etude-based shows such as Ars Longa, Vita Brevis (1998), directed by Basha and Gjoka, and Shakespeare’s Nata e dymbëdhjetë (Twelfth Night) (1999), directed by Basha¹²³. However, de­spite these artistic efforts, applied management and marketing, the com­pany could not sustain itself past 2003, as neither state nor private fund­ing could support an annual budget.

In the same year, Leka Bungo es­tablished a private theatre called Rubairat¹²⁴ in the foyer of the Nation­al Theatre. Despite lasting three years, it faced harsh criticism¹²⁵ for operating within a public institution’s premises. It was intended as a studio for young artists¹²⁶ but was also used as a night pub called Bretkosat (The Frogs) and as a studio for a private television channel. Rubairat closed in 2002 when the National Theatre building went under construction¹²⁷.

As you may have noticed—or per­haps overlooked—toward the end, the focus of this article shifted away from generational clashes and theatrical directions. Politics had successfully shifted the spotlight from artistic de­bates to management issues, and sud­denly, the National Theatre lost its artistic focus. The young artists from the Academy of Fine Arts saw a flick­er of hope in the emerging third pole of private productions, but to this day it is still a flicker. Throughout 1999, productions like Ëndrra e një nate dimri (A Dream of a Winter Night) by Ismail Kadare, directed by Armando Bora¹²⁸; Absurditet Antik (Ancient Absurdity) by Kasem Trebeshina, di­rected by Drini Ajdinlli; Twelfth Night and Summer Day¹²⁹ —all driven by young generations—occupied the National Theatre stage. Meanwhile, Gëzim Kame and many from the “old guard” performed on the Academy of Arts stage. Whoever wrote the article Rrokada e madhe (The Great Swap) was probably right—the seasoned professionals were performing at the Academy of Arts, and the students took over the National Theatre stage¹³⁰.

But this should fool no one. No battle was won; rather, both stages were downplayed. The audiences, loyal to one or the other, became con­fused and eventually lost. Soon, even the artists themselves would feel the loss—in the prolonged struggle to secure a proper National Theatre building, improved artist status, abun­dant Albanian drama, and meaningful criticism. These goals remain unachieved to this day.

Should the last grip of frost be chipped away?

We have written about a decade marked by research and experimenta­tion in Albanian theatre, caught be­tween clashing forces: the early ap­proach of experimentation seen as a springtime of creativity and the later communist social realism, a persistent frost. The renowned Albanian director Pirro Mani was right to say that we have no true school of alternative the­atres; even those who studied abroad in the 1950s and 1960s brought influ­ences from different artistic traditions but ultimately contributed to shaping a distinctly Albanian theatre¹³¹. The same was true for Sokrat Mio in the 1930s. After decades of experience both abroad and at home and 25 years of cultural exchange, the final hold of realism still endures.

Arben Kumbaro remains some­what controversial to this day; unfor­tunately, Agim Qirjaqi passed away prematurely and was unable to realise his dream of Theatre “Europe”; alt­hough Gëzim Kame began by break­ing theatrical conventions like the fourth wall, he never fully left realism and traditional theatre behind. Many rebellious actors and directors from that decade—too numerous to men­tion individually—continue to present variations of realist theatre, although it is clear that they remain adaptable to different styles and visions from vari­ous schools.

Albanian theatre has its own face — whatever that may be — and the main reason for this is probably the academic commitment to preserving the best of the Albanian methodology for teaching theatre fundamentals. So, let us keep some ice — to savour a fresh, prosperous, and stable summer. 

Notes

• Çikopano, „Partisan theatre or the Albanian variant of agitprop theatre?”, Art Studies, (21), 2022, pp. 11–38. https://doi.org/10.71398/as.vi21.3012.
• Central State Archive, Contract of technical employees [Fund 566 / Ministry of Press, Propaganda and Popular Culture, May 14, 1945, File 40, sheet 1].
• Idem, Memorandum: On a reorganization of the State Theatre [Fund 513 / Committee of Culture and Arts, Year 1946, File 7, sheets 1–2, 1949, October 19.
• Idem, Request to the Legation of the Soviet Union [Fund 566 / Ministry of Press, Propaganda and Popular Culture, January 24, 1946, File 121, sheets 1].
• Idem, Agreement with Dudin Vladimir Fyodorovich [Fund 513 / Committee of Culture and Arts, Year September 1, 1947, File 37, sheets 4–9].
• Merkaj, „Our directing school with a realist orientation”, Drita, 12 November 1997.
• Kosova, Gjigandë të artit botëror: Shekspir, Tolstoj, Dostojevski, … etj., Male, Tirana, 2016.

80. 78-80.

• Interview with actor Niko Kanxheri (personal communication).
• Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies at the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania (1978). Report delivered by the First Secretary of the CC of the PLA, Comrade Enver Hoxha: “Let us deepen the ideological struggle against foreign influences and liberal attitudes towards them,” June 26, 1973 / Decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania: “Let us deepen the ideological struggle against foreign influences and liberal attitudes towards them,” June 28, 1973, in Main Documents of the Party of Labour of Albania, Vol. 6, 1971–1975, pp. 346–367, 400.
• Prifti, Teatri në kohën e krizës. Horizont, Tirana, Albania, 2001, pp. 37-46.
• Çikopano, Kode zakonore në dramaturgjinë shqipe (pp. 129–130), Shtëpia Botuese Morava, 2020, pp. 129-130; Anonymous, „Drama and theatre have lost their authority. Let us support and encourage them”, Drita, 1 April 1990.
• Kelly, Gorky, Aragon and Socialist Realism. The Crane Bag, 7(1), pp. 108–111, 1983, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/30060556.
• Brisku, Internalizing Europe: Albanian perceptions of the continent in historical perspective (1878–2008). Journal of Educational Media, Memory & Society, 1(2), 2009, pp. 97-124. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43049333
• Sinani, “Living Theatre and Panic Theatre,” Skena dhe Ekrani, No. 2, 1990; Please note that the falling of the Albanian communist state would start by the beginning of December 1990.
• Resuli, Tomorrow: Premiere at the National Theatre, Tirana, 11 January 1990.
• Prifti, Teatri në kohën e krizës, Horizont, Tirana, Albania, 2001, p. 42.
• Anonymous, „Like an open meeting in the theatre stage”, Drita, 25 March 1990.
• Idem, „A staging marked by directorial originality”, Drita, 25 March 1990.
• Idem, „Drama and theatre have lost their authority. Let us support and encourage them”, Drita, 1 April, 1990.
• Anonymous, „The Show Is Over, But the Drama Goes On”, Zëri i Popullit, 25 March 1990.
• Dymi, When powerful thoughts are conveyed, Tirana, 18 October, 1990.
• Dhimitri, Moonlit night in the National Theatre, Bashkimi, 9 February 1991.
• Mema, „A broader conception of the work of the Arts Committee”, Drita, 7 April 1991.
• Kallamata, „Art and the Market Economy”, Ibidem, 24 March 1991.
• Anonymous, „A means of livelihood but also a risk of impoverishment”, Ibidem, 15 September 1991.
• Kallamata, Art and the market economy, Ibidem, 24 March 1991.
• Anonymous, The spaces of culture – Interview with the Minister of Culture, Youth, and Sports, Preç Zogaj, Ibidem, 21 July 1991.
• Idem, „What will we see during 1991?”, Ibidem, 13 January 1991.
• Anonymous, „The Visit on our stage”, Zëri i rinisë, 24 April 1991.
• Zhilla, „The Ghoul on the stage of the National Theatre”, Drita, 29 March 1992.
• Spektër, 1-15 December 1991, pp. 22-23.
• Ibidem.
• Velça, „Samuel Beckett on the stage of the Albanian theatre”, Drita, 16 January 1994.
• Avrami, „National culture facing the dilemmas carried by time”, Zëri i Rinisë, 6 March 1991.
• UÇI, „The aesthetics of the grotesque”, Drita, 31 October 1993.
• The improvisation of the discos started right after the students rebellions: Anonymous, Shall we spend a few hours in our disco?, Tirana, 20 December 1990.
• Slatina, Prirje të sotme të teatrit: Panoramë mbi teatrin shqiptar 1991–2001, Mokra, Tirana, 2001, pp. 136, 138, 142, 144; A. Dudushi, „I am Don Quixote”, Aks, 22 April 1995.
• Bajrami, „The tragic Lorca”, Zëri i Popullit, 21 December 1991.
• Koçi, „To begin with… at the edge of knives”, Drita, 28 July 1991.
• Interview with director Alfred Bualoti (personal communication), referring to an incident during Besa
• Zhilla, „Actors on strike”, Drita, 18 August 1991.
• Anonymous, „Theatre must restore its own dignity”, Drita, 26 April 1992; B. Skendaj, „The absurd fate of the Albanian actor”, Drita, 17 May 1992; V. Koçi, „The National Theatre is not a tavern”, Drita, 31 January 1993; The most tragic event occurred in 1992 when an actor was assaulted and beaten into a coma by unknown assailants for reasons still unknown, ultimately resulting in his death.
• Zhilla, „Arts students present urgent demands for school reform”, Drita, 5 April 1992.
• Kongoli, „It is very dangerous to be the last one left”, Drita, 19 September 1993.
• Ibidem.
• Alibali, „Art – a free space”, Drita, 11 September 1994.
• Makri, „For an open and honest debate”, Ibidem, 6 November 1994.
• Kongoli, „The National Festival of Albanian Professional Theatres”, Ibidem, 28 November 1993; K. Velça, „About the National Festival of Theatres”, Ibidem, 5 December 1993.
• Kallamata, „Theatre confronting drama and intrigue”, Drita, 25 September 1994.
• Papagjoni, „Apology for the new writings in Albanian drama”, Rilindja, 4 December 1994.
• Velça, „Theatre and drama”, Drita,16 October 1994.
• Idem, „Poor quality of drama”, Ibidem, 4 December 1994.
• Kadare, „The Times We Live in Suit the Theatre”, Skena dhe Ekrani, no. 2, 1990.
• Krutaj, „Theatrical Criticism – Its Crisis and Perspective”, Rilindja, 24 December 1994.
• Vogli, „The National Theatre in the Dark”, Aks, 4 March 1995.
• Marku, „Behind the Scenes”, Ibidem, 6 May 1995.
• Dudushi, „The State Speaks, the Artists Remain Silent”, Ibidem, 1 April 1995.
• Idem, „The Actor Is Part of the Elite and Should Be Treated Accordingly”, Ibidem, 8 April 1995.
• Idem, „I Entered Art with the Advantage of Being Blonde”, Aks, 17 June 1995.
• Idem, „Theatre on the Eve of the Season”, Ibidem, 2 September 1996.
• Kasapi, „The Absurd of Ionesco in Albanian”, Ibidem,1 April 1995.
• Vogli, „Art Under Attack in Its Own House”, Ibidem, 15 April 1995.
• Slatina, op.cit., pp. 141.
• Central State Archive, Resolution on the opening of a 9-month training course for theatre directors at the Higher School for Actors Aleksandër Moisiu, 1965, [Fund / Ministry of Education, File, sheet 11].
• Kame, „The Parliament Building to Be Turned into a Theatre”, Aks, 22 January 1995.
• Dudushi, „Gloomy Chronicle from the Temple of Dreams”, Ibidem, 1995, 18 March 1995.
• Idem, „An Anthropological Experiment Takes Place in Albania as Well”, Aks, 15 July 1995.
• Slatina, op.cit., p. 148.
• Vogli, „The Play ‘Not All Thieves Come to Harm You’ – An Unpleasant Surprise”, Aks, 18 March 1995.
• Kasapi, „The Absurd of Ionesco in Albanian”, Ibidem, 1 April 1995.
• Dudushi, „The Theatre Grows Old, the School Turns Infantile”, Ibidem, 8 July 1995.
• Dudushi, „Theatre Festival in Vlora: Pros and Cons”, Ibidem, 1995, 14 October 1995.
• Çipi, „Theatre Students in Search of Themselves”, Ibidem,16 December 2025.
• Anonymous, „The Liar, a Touchstone”, Ibidem s,11 November 1995.
• The Academy of Fine Arts also organized a week of student performances immediately following the festival, during which the students openly challenged “the old” generation.
• Dudushi, „Life Beyond the Festival Seems Bleak”, Aks, 25 November 1995.
• Skëndaj, „As the Festival Curtain Was Rising”, Albania, 25 November 1995.
• Hasimja, „Tendencies Toward a New Theatrical Expression”, Drita, 1995, December 24
• Dudushi, „Nine Competitors and Four Guests at the Festival”, Aks, 18 November 1995.
• Anonymous, „The First Private Theatre Opens in Albania”, Ibidem, 13 May 1995.
• Nesturi, „The First Private Theatre”, Drita, 28 May 1985.
• Dudushi, “Saint Cosmas” and Albanian Theatre, Aks, 1995, 1 April 1995.
• Idem, „“A Plate of Jokes” Is Served, Ibidem, 1995, 17 June 1995.
• Ibidem.
• Teatri Zonja e Bujtinës, Teatri Privat “Kafe Teatër nr 1” [Video]. YouTube, 15 June 2024 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DJBwSij7WQY Referred on 15 May 2025.
• Dudushi, The Theatre Grows Old, the School Turns Infantile, op.cit.
• Idem, „The Comedy That Breeds Conflict”, Aks, 17 February 1998.
• Anonymous, „Spring’s First Swallow”, Art kulturë, 9 October 1999.
• Çupi, „Students Embraced Realist Theatre Once Again”, Albania, 11 February 1996.
• Idem, „The Audience Knows More Than the Stage”, Ibidem, 22 February 1996.
• Kurti, „Alternative or Realist Theatre?”, Ibidem, 14 February 1996.
• Two other plays were proposed: Shtëpia në bulevard (The House on the Boulevard) by Fadil Paçrami, who had been detained in 1973 for his Brechtian tendencies in theatre and on other related political accuses, and I pazëvendësueshmi (The Irreplaceable) by Qamil Buxheli, which had been banned after its performance at the Theatre of the People in 1970. Although both plays were submitted for border approval, they were ultimately rejected—officially for being no longer relevant.
• Radi, „The Oracles Shatter the Luarasi Myth”, Aks, 18 November 1995.
• Nikolla, „By This Return I Felt Like I Was Right Back Where I Had Left Things 23 Years Ago”, Drita, 19 November 1995.
• Dudushi, „Kumbaro Is Denied the Stage of the National Theatre”, Aks, 24 February 1996.
• Mara, „One Show and Many Debates”, Albania, 20 March 1996.
• M., „Now, a rape victim on stage”, Aks, 3 February 1996.
• Skëndaj, „Talented Actors Kept the Theatre Stage Alive”, Albania, 7 January 1996.
• Hasimja, „Experimental Studio: A Half-Hearted Experiment”, Drita, 1 December 1996.
• Rashidi, „Albanian theatre needs changes”, Ibidem, 29 September 1996.
• Anonymous, „The Stage and Backstage of the National Theatre, Ibidem, 3 February 1996.
• Roshi, „Actors Suspend Performances, Ujka Promises the Money”, Albania, 1 March 1997.
• Idem, „The reform affects artists, but only in 1998”, Ibidem, 3 December 1998.
• Idem, „The Government Turns Its Attention to Cultur”, Ibidem, 21 November 1996; Until then, actors were on the payroll, and 90% of the ticket income was distributed among the troupe members of each performance.
• Anonymous, „The Golden Sphinx Returns to Tirana”, Ibidem, 18 October 1977.
• Ll., „Until when will they permit themselves…”, Ibidem, 1997, 29 August 1997.
• Balla, „Exams Season”, Drita, 12 January 1997.
• Ll., „The “Frauds” Return”, Albania, 22 November 1997.
• Idem, „“A Sea of Poison” Opens the Theatre Competition”, Ibidem, 11 November 1997.
• Konomi, „The play is performed backstage: quarrels at the artists’ table”, Ibidem, 14 November 1997.
• Ndroqi, „The Pseudo-Philanthropists and the Camouflaged Politics”, Rilindja Demokratike, 17 May 1998.
• Anonymous, „The New National Theatre through Voluntary Contributions”, Rilindja Demokratike, 13 May 1998.
• Kola, „Culture under the Authoritarian Rule of Minister Rama”, Drita, 6 September 1998.
• Anonymous, „The upcoming season is pending, as the country awaits calmer times”, Albania, 24 September 1998.
• Idem, „The Garden of Swallows and Anti-Confrontationism”, Rilindja Demokratike, 8 May 1998.
• Jubica, „“Miss Julie” tours Europe”, 55, 27 june 1998.
• Morava, „It turns out we were writers of socialist realism!!!”, Drita, 13 september 1998.
• Pulaj, „The theatre begins to live”, Gazeta shqiptare, 26 september 1988.
• Basha & A. Dudushi, „For a ‘poor’ theatre and ‘expensive’ actors”, Aks, 4 february 1999, pp. 40–43.
• Anonymous, „Statement of protest by the national association of theatre artists and the union of theatres of Albania”, Art-kulturë, 25 september 1999.
• Dudushi, „Watch out, it bites… but has no teeth”, Aks, 28 january 1999, pp. 28–29.
• Tv klan. (1999, july 23), Teatri kombëtar – 23 korrik 1999
• youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucmg8rgnchg, (15 may 2025).
• S., „Last night was the twelfth night”, Art-Kulturë, 23 October 1999.
• Bungo, (n.d.), „Bungo: “Ulë zërin! Shqiptarët kanë frikë edhe në demokraci”, Panorama, https://www.panorama.com.al/bungo-ule-zerin-shqiptaret-frike-edhe-ne-demokraci/, (15 May 2025).
• Top Channel. (n.d.), [Interview or program segment with Bungo] [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhZLdqkQQlY, (15 May 2025).
• TV Klan, „Teatri Kombëtar – Emision i Arkivuar”, TV Klan. https://tvklan.al/teatri-kombetar-23-korrik-1999, 23 July 1999, (15 May 2025).
• Fjala e Jonë. (n.d.), Teatri, ku shqiptarët shikonin të vërtetat brenda qenies së tyre, https://fjalajone.com/teatri-ku-shqiptaret-shikonin-te-vertetat-brenda-qenies-se-tyre/, (15 May 2025).
• Papagjoni, „The Truth of a Dream”, Art-Kulturë, 9 October 1999.
• Anonymous, „The Week in Tirana”, Ibidem, 6 November 1999.
• Idem, „The Great Swap”, Ibidem, 9 October 1999.
• Jubica, „The Director Is the One Who Truly Creates the Theatre”, Art-Kulturë, 23 October 1999.

 

Bibliography

 

Archives

***, Decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania: “Let us deepen the ideological struggle against foreign influences and liberal attitudes towards them,” June 28, 1973, in Main Documents of the Party of Labour of Albania, Vol. 6, 1971–1975, pp. 346–367, 400.

Central State Archive. Contract of technical employees [Fund 566 / Ministry of Press, Propaganda and Popular Culture, 14 May1945, File 40, sheet 1].

IDEM, Request to the Legation of the Soviet Union [Fund 566 / Ministry of Press, Propaganda and Popular Culture, 24 January 1946, File 121, sheets 1].

IDEM, Agreement with Dudin Vladimir Fyodorovich [Fund 513 / Committee of Culture and Arts, 1 September 1947, File 37, sheets 4–9].

IDEM, Memorandum: On a reorganiz-ation of the State Theatre [Fund 513 / Committee of Culture and Arts, 19 October 1949, File 7, sheets 1–2].

IDEM, Resolution on the opening of a 9-month training course for theatre directors at the Higher School for Actors Aleksandër Moisiu, 1965, [Fund / Ministry of Education, File, sheet 11].

Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies at the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania (1978). Report delivered by the First Secretary of the CC of the PLA, Comrade Enver Hoxha: “Let us deepen the ideological struggle against foreign influences and liberal attitudes towards them,” June 26, 1973.

 

Books

PRIFTI, N., Teatri në kohën e krizës, Horizont, Tirana, 2001.

 

Studies and articles

1996. M, „Now, a rape victim on stage”, Aks, 3 February 1996.

ALIBALI, N., „Art – a free space”, Drita, 11 September 1994.

ANONYMOUS, „A staging marked by directorial originality”, Drita, 25 March 1990.

IDEM, „Like an open meeting in the theatre stage”, Drita, 25 March 1990.

IDEM, „The Show Is Over, But the Drama Goes On”, Zëri i Popullit, 25 March 1990.

ANONYMOUS, „Drama and theatre have lost their authority. Let us support and encourage them”, Drita, 1 April 1990.

IDEM, „The Visit on our stage”, Zëri i rinisë, 24 April 1991.

IDEM, „What will we see during 1991?”, Drita, 13 January 1991.

IDEM, „The spaces of culture – Interview with the Minister of Culture, Youth, and Sports”, Preç Zogaj, Drita, 21 July 1991.

IDEM, „A means of livelihood but also a risk of impoverishment”, Drita, 15 September 1991.

IDEM, „Theatre must restore its own dignity”, Drita, 26 April 1992.

IDEM, „The First Private Theatre Opens in Albania”, Aks, 13 May 1995.

IDEM, „The Liar, a Touchstone”, Aks, 11 November 1995.

IDEM, „The Stage and Backstage of the National Theatre”, Drita, 3 February 1996.

IDEM, „The Golden Sphinx Returns to Tirana”, Albania, 18 October 1997.

IDEM, „The New National Theatre through Voluntary Contributions”, Rilindja Demokratike, 13 May 1998.

IDEM, „The Garden of Swallows and Anti-Confrontationism”, Rilindja Demokratike, 8 May 1998.

IDEM, „The upcoming season is pending, as the country awaits calmer times”, Albania, 1998, 24 September 1988.

IDEM, „The Week in Tirana”, Art-Kulturë, 6 November 1999.

IDEM, „Spring’s First Swallow”, Art kulturë, 9 October 1999.

IDEM, „The Great Swap”, Art-Kulturë, 9 October 1999.

IDEM, „Statement of Protest by The National Association of Theatre Artists and The Union of Theatres of Albania”, Art-Kulturë, 25 September 1999.

IDEM, „Drama and theatre have lost their authority. Let us support and encourage them”, Drita, 1 April 1990.

IDEM, „Shall we spend a few hours in our disco?”, Tirana, 20 December 1990.

AVRAMI, V., „National culture facing the dilemmas carried by time”, Zëri i Rinisë, 6 March 1991.

BAJRAMI, S., „The tragic Lorca”, Zëri i Popullit, 21 December 1991.

BALLA, M., „Exams Season”, Drita, 12 January 1997.

BASHA, A., & DUDUSHI, A., „For a ‘poor’ theatre and ‘expensive’ actors”, AKS, 4 February 1999, pp. 40–43.

ÇIKOPANO, A., „Kode zakonore në dramaturgjinë shqipe”, Shtëpia Botuese Morava, 2020, pp. 129-130.

ÇIPI, K., „Theatre Students in Search of Themselves”, Aks, 16 December 2025.

ÇUPI, A., „Students Embraced Realist Theatre Once Again”, Albania, 11 February 1996.

IDEM, „The Audience Knows More Than the Stage”, Albania, 22 February 1996.

DHIMITRI, P., „Moonlit night in the National Theatre”, Bashkimi, 9 February 1991.

DUDUSHI, A., „“Saint Cosmas” and Albanian Theatre”, Aks, 1 April 1995.

IDEM, „The State Speaks, the Artists Remain Silent”, Aks, 1 April 1995.

IDEM, „The Actor Is Part of the Elite and Should Be Treated Accordingly”, Aks, 8 April 1995.

IDEM, „An Anthropological Experiment Takes Place in Albania as Well”, Aks, 15 July 1995.

IDEM, „The Theatre Grows Old, the School Turns Infantile”, Aks, 8 July 1995.

IDEM, „“A Plate of Jokes” Is Served”, Aks, 17 June 1995.

IDEM, „I Entered Art with the Advantage of Being Blonde”, Aks, 7 June 1995.

IDEM, „Gloomy Chronicle from the Temple of Dreams”, Aks, 18 March 1995.

IDEM, „Nine Competitors and Four Guests at the Festival”, Aks, 18 November 1995.

IDEM, „Life Beyond the Festival Seems Bleak”, Aks, 25 November 1995.

IDEM, „Theatre Festival in Vlora: Pros and Cons”, Aks, 14 October 1995.

IDEM, „Kumbaro Is Denied the Stage of the National Theatre”, Aks, 24 February 1996.

IDEM, „Theatre on the Eve of the Season”, Aks, 2 September 1996.

IDEM, „The Comedy That Breeds Conflict”, Aks, 17 February 1998.

IDEM, „Watch out, it bites… but has no teeth”, Aks, 28 January 1999.

IDEM, „I am Don Quixote”, Aks, 22 April 1995.

DYMI, A., „When powerful thoughts are conveyed”, Tirana, 18 October 1990.

1999. S., „Last night was the twelfth night”, Art-Kulturë, 23 October 1999.

HASIMJA, E., „Tendencies Toward a New Theatrical Expression”, Drita, 24 December 1995.

HASIMJA, E., „Experimental Studio: A Half-Hearted Experiment”, Drita, 1 December 1996.

JUBICA, I., “Miss Julie” Tours Europe, Gazeta 55, 27 June 1998.

IDEM, „The Director Is the One Who Truly Creates the Theatre”, Art-Kulturë, 23 October 1999.

KADARE, I., „The Times We Live in Suit the Theatre”, Skena dhe Ekrani, no. 2., (1990).

KALLAMATA, A., „Art and the Market Economy”, Drita, 24 March 1991.

IDEM., „Theatre confronting drama and intrigue, Drita, 25 September 1994.

KAME, G., „The Parliament Building to Be Turned into a Theatre, Aks, 22 January 1995.

KASAPI, A., „The Absurd of Ionesco in Albanian, Aks, 1 April 1995.

KOÇI, V., „To begin with… at the edge of knives, Drita, 28 July 1991.

KOLA, Gj., „Culture under the Authoritarian Rule of Minister Rama, Drita, 6 September 1998.

KONGOLI, F., „The National Festival of Albanian Professional Theatres, Drita, 28 November 1993.

KONGOLI, F., „It is very dangerous to be the last one left, Drita, 19 September 1993.

KONOMI, M., „The play is performed backstage: quarrels at the artists’ table, Albania, 14 November 1997.

KRUTAJ, Z., „Theatrical Criticism – Its Crisis and Perspective”, Rilindja, 24 December 1994.

KURTI, Xh., „Alternative or Realist Theatre?”, Albania, 14 February 1996.

1997. R., „Actors Suspend Performances, Ujka Promises the Money”, Albania, 1 March 1997.
1998. Ll., „Until when will they permit themselves”, Albania, 29 August 1997.
1999. Ll., “A Sea of Poison” Opens the Theatre Competition”, Albania, 11 November 1997.
2000. Ll., „The “Frauds” Return”, Albania, 22 November 1997.

MAKRI, E., „For an open and honest debate”, Drita, 6 November 1994.

MARA, I., „One Show and Many Debates”, Albania, 20 March 1996.

MARKU, A., „Behind the Scenes”, Aks, 6 May 1995.

MEMA, B., „A broader conception of the work of the Arts Committee”, Drita, 7 April 1991.

MERKAJ, B., „Our directing school with a realist orientation”, Drita, 12 November 1997.

MORAVA, Z., „It turns out we were writers of socialist realism!!!”, Drita, 13 September 1998.

NDROQI, A., „The Pseudo-Philanthropists and the Camouflaged Politics”, Rilindja Demokratike, 17 May 1998.

NESTURI, K., „The First Private Theatre”, Drita, 28 May 1985.

NIKOLLA, F., „By This Return I Felt Like I Was Right Back Where I Had Left Things 23 Years Ago”, Drita, 19 November 1995.

PAPAGJONI, J., „Apology for the new writings in Albanian drama”, Rilindja, 4 December 1994.

PAPAGJONI, J., „The Truth of a Dream”, Art-Kulturë, 9 October 1999, pp. 78-80.

PULAJ, A., „The Theatre Begins to Live”, Gazeta Shqiptare, 26 September 1988.

RADI, F., „The Oracles Shatter the Luarasi Myth”, Aks, 18 November 1995.

RASHIDI, N., „Albanian theatre needs changes”, Drita, 20 September 1996.

RESULI, G., „Tomorrow: Premiere at the National Theatre”, Tirana, 11 January 1990.

ROSHI, L., „The Government Turns Its Attention to Culture. Albania”, 21 November 1996.

ROSHI, L., „The reform affects artists, but only in 1998”, Albania, 3 December 1998.

SINANI, P., “Living Theatre and Panic Theatre,” Skena dhe Ekrani, no. 2, 1990.

SKËNDAJ, B., „As the Festival Curtain Was Rising”, Albania, 25 November 1995.

SKËNDAJ, B., „Talented Actors Kept the Theatre Stage Alive”, Albania, 7 January 1996,

SLATINA, F., „Prirje të sotme të teatrit: Panoramë mbi teatrin shqiptar 1991–2001”. Tirana, 2001.

UÇI, A., „The aesthetics of the grotesque”, Drita, 31 October 1993.

VELÇA, K., „About the National Festival of Theatres, Drita, 5 December 1993.

IDEM, „Poor quality of drama”, Drita, 4 December 1994.

IDEM, „Theatre and drama”, Drita, 16 October 1994.

IDEM, „Samuel Beckett on the stage of the Albanian theatre”, Drita, 16 January 1994.

VOGLI, A., „Art Under Attack in Its Own House”, Aks, 15 April 1995.

IDEM, „The Play ‘Not All Thieves Come to Harm You’ – An Unpleasant Surprise”, Aks,18 March 1995.

IDEM, „The National Theatre in the Dark”, Aks, 4 March 1995.

ZHILLA, I., „Actors on strike”, Drita, 19 August 1991.

IDEM, „Arts students present urgent demands for school reform”, Drita, 5 April 1992.

IDEM, „The Ghoul on the stage of the National Theatre”, Drita, 29 March 1992.

SKENDAJ, B., „The absurd fate of the Albanian actor”, Drita, 17 May 1992.

KOÇI, V., „The National Theatre is not a tavern”, Drita, 31 January 1993.

Newspapers

Spektër, 1-15 December 1991.

Online resources

BRISKU, A., „Internalizing Europe: Albanian perceptions of the continent in historical perspective (1878–2008)”, Journal of Educational Media, Memory & Society, 1(2), 2009, pp. 97–124. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43049333

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ÇIKOPANO, A, „Partisan theatre or the Albanian variant of agitprop theatre?”, Art Studies, (21), 2022, pp. 11–38. https://doi.org/10.71398/as.vi21.3012

FJALA e Jonë. (n.d.), Teatri, ku shqiptarët shikonin të vërtetat brenda qenies së tyre, https://fjalajone.com/teatri-ku-shqiptaret-shikonin-te-vertetat-brenda-qenies-se-tyre/ on 15 May 2025.

KELLY, M, Gorky, Aragon and Socialist Realism. The Crane Bag, 7(1), 1983, pp. 108–111. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30060556

TOP Channel. (n.d.), [Interview or program segment with Bungo] [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhZLdqkQQlY, referred on 15 May 2025.

TV Klan., Teatri Kombëtar – 23 Korrik 1999 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucmG8rgnCHg, 23 July 1999, referred on 15 May 2025.

IDEM Teatri Kombëtar – Emision i Arkivuar. TV Klan. https://tvklan.al/teatri-kombetar-23-korrik-1999, 23 July 1999, referred on 15 May 2025.

Teatri Zonja e Bujtinës, Teatri Privat “Kafe Teatër nr 1” [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DJBwSij7WQY, 15 June 2024.