Echoes of the Past: Folklore Connections between Albania and Romania

 Drita ISUFAJ

Viola ISUFAJ

Abstract: The historical and cultural connections between Romanians and Al­banians, two peoples in the Balkan Peninsula, have spurred linguistic, historical, and folkloric studies. This study aims to explore the intricate relationship be­tween Albanian and Romanian folklore, examining shared motifs, characters, and narratives that illuminate their intertwined cultural heritage. Drawing upon comparative analysis of folktales, legends, and traditional customs, this research investigates the commonalities and divergences in the folkloric traditions of both nations. It also examines historical contexts, such as the Middle Ages and the Ottoman era, that have shaped the folklore of both regions. This study also con­siders the impact of Romanian academics on Albanian culture, and how the two cultures depict themselves and each other. Furthermore, the research delves into the linguistic connections between the Albanian and Romanian languages, searching for shared vocabulary, linguistic structures, symbolism, and mythol­ogy within their folklore. By analyzing these elements, this study seeks to reveal the extent of the ethno-spiritual relationships between the Thracian-Romanian and Illyrian-Albanian cultures. Ultimately, this exploration contributes to a deeper understanding of the cultural dynamics within the Balkans and highlights the enduring legacy of shared folkloric traditions between Albanians and Roma­nians.

Keywords: Albanian folklore, Romanian folklore, kulshedra, zmeu, Balkan oral tradition, comparative mythology.

Introduction

The Balkan Peninsula is often de­scribed as a crossroads of cultures, where the clash of civilizations, the ebb and flow of empires, and the in­terplay of religious and linguistic sys­tems have created a rich and diverse cultural heritage. Albania and Romania, though geographically sepa­rated by rugged mountains and val­leys, share deep and meaningful folkloric connections that transcend their linguistic and historical differ­ences. These connections are grounded in shared Indo-European origins and are shaped by common historical experiences, especially un­der Ottoman rule, as well as the in­tertwining of Christianity with pre-Christian beliefs.

Romanian and Albanian folk tra­ditions, both deeply rooted in oral culture, have preserved unique stories, mythological figures, and symbolic motifs. While the languages spoken by the two peoples—Romanian, a Romance language, and Albanian, a member of the Indo-European lan­guage family but distinct from its neighbors—may seem distant, their folklore reveals profound similarities. These similarities suggest a historical interaction, a shared cultural history, and, in some cases, the survival of ancient, pre-Roman and pre-Christian beliefs that have been adapted and modified over centuries of foreign occupation and societal transfor­mation.

This study seeks to delve deeper into the common folkloric threads that link Albania and Romania, examining the shared motifs, mythological fig­ures, and narrative structures. By do­ing so, we reveal the enduring con­nections between these two Balkan cultures and explore how their folk­lore contributes to the maintenance of a collective Balkan identity¹.

SHARED FOLKLORIC MO­TIFS AND ARCHETYPES

The Heroic Outlaw: Kreshnik and Haiduc

One of the most powerful and evocative archetypes found in both Albanian and Romanian folklore is that of the heroic outlaw—figures who defy the established social order in order to protect their communities and uphold justice. The kreshniks in Albanian folklore are semi-mythic warriors who fight for honor, kin, and homeland. These figures appear prominently in the epic poetry of the highland regions, where they are de­picted as strong, brave, and often su­pernaturally endowed. The kreshniks are typically engaged in struggles against foreign invaders, particularly the Ottomans, as well as against mythical monsters and even internal threats like treachery or betrayal. In the epic “Muji and Halili,” the two kreshniks battle against Ottoman forces, demonstrating both physical strength and cleverness in their strug­gle for freedom².

In Romania, the parallel figure is the haiduc, a heroic outlaw who robs from the rich to give to the poor, em­bodying a defiant spirit against social injustice. The haiduc often represents a form of resistance against foreign or corrupt rulers, particularly during the Ottoman and Phanariot periods, when the Romanian peasants faced heavy taxation and oppression. Figures such as Iancu Jianu, who fought against the Ottoman and Phanariot elites in the 19th century, have become legendary in Romanian folklore and continue to symbolize national pride and re­sistance. Both the kreshniks and the haiduc are characterized by their deep sense of justice and are often por­trayed as individuals of great moral clarity. These figures are typically accompanied by loyal companions—brothers, comrades, or even magical beings—that underscore the im­portance of fraternity and solidarity in their missions of resistance³. This shared motif reflects not only a com­mon heroic ideal but also a shared value system in both Albanian and Romanian cultures, where heroism is tied to the defense of the community and the fight against tyranny.

Mythical Monsters: Kulshedra and Zmeu

Both Albanian and Romanian folklore feature terrifying and de­structive mythical creatures that em­body chaos and evil—figures who must be vanquished in order to restore balance to the world. The kulshedra, a multi-headed dragon or serpent, is a central figure in Albanian mythology. In the epic tales, the kulshedra causes destruction by blocking rivers or con­suming livestock, threatening the sur­vival of entire communities. Only a hero with supernatural strength or divine favor can defeat this creature, typically through combat or the per­formance of specific tasks. The drangue, a hero with the power of thunder, is often the one chosen to confront and defeat the kulshedra in these stories⁴.

In Romanian folklore, the zmeu serves a similar function. The zmeu is a dragon-like figure who kidnaps beautiful maidens and hoards treasure. The most famous Romanian hero tasked with confronting the zmeu is Făt-Frumos, a handsome and coura­geous young man who sets out on a quest to rescue a captive princess. Like the kulshedra, the zmeu symbol­izes destructive forces that threaten the natural and social order⁵. The myth of the zmeu is deeply rooted in the ancient Indo-European dragon-slaying mythos, which represents the cosmic struggle between order and disorder. Both the kulshedra and the zmeu are often linked to the natural world—rivers, mountains, and for­ests—highlighting their roles as forces that disrupt the harmony of the world. Their defeat, by brave heroes, sym­bolizes the restoration of order, jus­tice, and balance⁶.

Nature Spirits and Supernatural Women

Both Albanian and Romanian folklore contain numerous references to supernatural beings, particularly feminine figures associated with na­ture and the wild. The zana in Alba­nian folklore are female nature spirits who are often depicted as ethereal, beautiful, and powerful. They inhabit remote areas of the mountains, forests, and springs, where they serve as pro­tectors of the natural world. In some tales, the zana is seen as a benevolent figure who helps warriors or travelers, while in others, she can be vengeful, punishing those who disrespect the land or its sacred rules. The zana often possess the ability to bestow blessings or curses, depending on how they are treated by humans.

Romanian folklore also contains similar figures, such as the zână and iele. The zână is a fairy-like figure, a guardian of nature, beauty, and fertil­ity. She is often portrayed as a healer or protector of the wilderness. The iele, on the other hand, are more mysterious and dangerous beings, frequently associated with the forces of nature that are untamed and wild. They are known to dance at midnight in the forest, and those who see them may face dire consequences. The iele embody both the nurturing and de­structive powers of nature, reflecting the duality inherent in natural forces.

Both the zana and the zână as well as the iele are associated with liminal spaces—forests, mountains, and riv­ers—that are seen as boundaries be­tween the human world and the divine or supernatural realm. These figures underscore the ancient connection between the feminine, nature, and the spiritual forces that govern life and death, creation and destruction. They also reflect a deep reverence for na­ture and the idea that the natural world is both sacred and dangerous, requir­ing respect and humility from those who interact with it.

Historical Contexts and Cultural Influences

The Ottoman Empire, which con­trolled much of the Balkans for sev­eral centuries, left a profound impact on both Albanian and Romanian folklore. The lasting influence of Ot­toman rule can be seen in the recur­ring themes of mission against foreign invaders, particularly Turkish pashas and other Ottoman figures. In both Albanian and Romanian folklore, these figures are often portrayed as tyrants or oppressive rulers who are ultimately overthrown by local heroes. The moral of these stories is often clear: the Ottoman rulers represent injustice, while the native hero em­bodies the spirit of resistance and the quest for freedom and justice⁷.

The process of Christianization also left a lasting imprint on both Al­banian and Romanian folklore. Many pre-Christian deities and spirits were assimilated into Christian beliefs, re­sulting in the creation of syncretic figures that combined elements of pagan and Christian traditions. For instance, in both cultures, Saint Elijah (Shën Ilia in Albanian, Sfântul Ilie in Romanian) became a powerful figure associated with thunder and lightning, replacing earlier pagan gods of the storm. This transformation reflects the broader trend of Christianization in the Balkans, where older beliefs were often absorbed and reinterpreted within the framework of Christianity⁸.

Moreover, the influence of neigh­boring cultures, such as the Slavs and Greeks, further enriched the folklore traditions of both Albania and Romania. Folklorists have long noted the cross-cultural exchanges that oc­curred throughout the region, with shared themes, motifs, and characters emerging across different traditions. This cultural blending helped shape the distinctive but interconnected folklore of the Balkans, a region that remains a tapestry of diverse cultural influences.

Linguistic Parallels in Folkloric Language

Despite the linguistic divergence between Romanian and Albanian, there are significant linguistic parallels that emerge in the study of folklore. Both languages belong to the larger Indo-European language family, and over the centuries, they have shared cultural and linguistic contact, partic­ularly in areas with mixed Vlach and Aromanian populations. As a result, certain words, expressions, and phrases in their folk speech show evi­dence of borrowing and convergence.

One of the most intriguing exam­ples of linguistic overlap is the term drac, meaning both “devil” and “dragon” in Romanian. This word has an almost identical counterpart in Al­banian: dreq, which also refers to an evil spirit or devil. These terms appear frequently in folk prayers, curses, and legends, where they are invoked to ward off evil or explain misfortune. The shared linguistic roots of these terms suggest not only ancient Indo-European connections but also the cultural diffusion between the two peoples, particularly during times of trade, migration, and occupation.

Other common elements of lan­guage and mythological symbolism further support the idea of a shared cultural heritage, as both cultures pre­serve ancient Indo-European arche­types and linguistic features. These connections reveal the ways in which folklore can act as a linguistic and cultural bridge, allowing us to trace the development and evolution of both languages and cultures.

Case Study: The Captive Maiden Motif

A striking example of the shared folklore between Albania and Romania is the Captive Maiden motif. This motif appears across a wide range of folktales, where a young woman is kidnapped by a dragon, demon, or other monstrous creature and imprisoned in a remote, often perilous location. The hero of the story—often a handsome prince or a valiant warrior—embarks on a quest to rescue her, overcoming numerous obstacles and completing tasks that prove his bravery and worth.

In Albanian tales such as The Three Brothers and the Captive Prin­cess, the heroine is often a figure of immense beauty or divine signifi­cance, and her liberation requires not only strength but also cleverness and strategic thinking. The hero may re­ceive help from magical creatures or supernatural allies along the way. Similarly, in Romanian tales such as those involving Făt-Frumos, the hero battles the zmeu or other monstrous figures to free the captive maiden, who symbolizes both the ideal of feminine beauty and the continuity of cultural values.

The shared Captive Maiden motif reveals much about gender roles and societal values in both cultures. The heroine is often portrayed as both a victim and a repository of hidden wis­dom or power, and her rescue repre­sents not only the restoration of order but also the reaffirmation of tradi­tional values. The hero’s journey, which is often fraught with dangers and moral challenges, represents the pursuit of justice and the triumph of good over evil.

Conclusion

Through a deeper exploration of shared folkloric motifs and arche­types, it becomes clear that the folk­lore traditions of Albania and Romania are not isolated but inter­twined by centuries of cultural inter­action, historical experience, and shared mythological heritage. From the heroic outlaws—the kreshniks and the haiduc—to the mythical mon­sters—the kulshedra and the zmeu—these figures serve as powerful sym­bols of resistance, justice, and the struggle against evil. Furthermore, the presence of supernatural female fig­ures, such as the zana and zână, high­lights the deep reverence for nature and the sacred role of women in both cultures’ mythological systems.

Both cultures, while developing distinct national identities, preserve ancient Indo-European myths and symbols that continue to resonate in their modern folklore. The shared linguistic features, such as the words for “dragon” or “devil,” reveal not only common linguistic origins but also the lasting cultural bonds between the two peoples. Ultimately, the folk­lore of Albania and Romania contin­ues to be a vibrant expression of their shared past, offering us a window into the mythic consciousness of the Bal­kan peoples and reminding us of the power of oral traditions to preserve and transmit cultural values across generations.

In exploring these interconnected traditions, we not only gain insight into the cultural soul of the Balkans but also come to appreciate the ways in which folklore can transcend bor­ders, creating a shared sense of iden­tity that endures despite the passage of time and the complexities of modern geopolitical realities.

Notes

• Stith Thompson, Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, Indiana University Press, 1955, Motif G303.1.
• Edith Durham, High Albania, Phoenix Press, 2000 (originally published 1909), p. 239.
• Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, Harcourt, 1957, pp. 128–130.
• See Eqerem Çabej, „Studime gjuhësore dhe folklorike” in Studime Filologjike, 1965, p. 93.
• Vladimir Georgiev, „The Balkan Linguistic Union”, Slavonic ans European Review, 1959, p. 83.
• Eric Hamp, The Position of Albanian, Ancient Indo-European Dialects, 1966, p.125.
• Robert Elsie, Albanian Folktales and Legends, Dukagjini Publishing, 2001, tale #8.
• Ion Creangă, Poveşti, Bucharest, 1879, p.130.

Bibliography

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ELIADE, Mircea, Patterns in Compar­ative Religion, Sheed & Ward, 1958.

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ÇABEJ, Eqrem, „Studime gjuhësore dhe folklorike”, Studime Filologjike, 1965.

GEORGIEV, Vladimir, “The Balkan Linguistic Union”, Slavonic and East European Review, 1959.